How to Find an Ethical Dog Breeder: What the Research Says

Before we get into the research regarding finding an ethical breeder. I would like to say that of the dogs I have had: three have been from rescues, five from shelters, and four from breeders. How you go about finding your dog is a personal choice, but it should always involve research.

Choosing a breeder can be confusing.

Nearly every breeder today can build a polished website, post adorable puppy photos, talk about how much they love their dogs, and describe their puppies as “family raised.” Some advertise DNA testing. Others emphasize registration, championships, rare colors, imported bloodlines, or years of experience.

None of those things, by themselves, tell you whether someone is breeding dogs ethically.

An ethical breeder is doing something much more complicated than producing puppies.

They are making decisions that can influence the health, behavior, welfare, and genetic future of dogs for generations.

Research into canine genetics, inherited disease, puppy development, socialization, conformation, and breeding practices increasingly gives prospective dog guardians ways to look beyond marketing and ask a more meaningful question:

Is this breeder making decisions in the best interests of the dogs they produce?

That is the standard that matters.

What Does “Ethical Breeding” Actually Mean?

There is no single universally accepted scientific definition of an “ethical breeder,” but researchers studying canine genetics and welfare have proposed a useful framework.

A 2020 paper examining the future of dog breeding described ethical breeding as using healthy animals that are behaviorally and physically functional and, where relevant, capable of sustainable performance. The researchers argued that breeding programs should identify health and genetic problems within their populations, evaluate genetic diversity, establish meaningful breeding goals, and make decisions with the long-term health of the population in mind.

That last part is important.

Responsible breeding is not simply about producing one healthy litter.

It is about making choices that protect the welfare of the puppies, their parents, and ideally the broader population of dogs being bred.

That means an ethical breeder should be thinking about several things simultaneously:

health, genetic diversity, temperament, physical function, early development, welfare, appropriate placement, and the future of the dogs they produce.

Registration Does Not Equal Ethical Breeding

One of the first misconceptions prospective puppy buyers should abandon is that registration automatically means responsible breeding.

A pedigree or kennel-club registration primarily documents ancestry and eligibility within a particular registry. It does not independently guarantee that the parents were appropriately health tested, that their temperament was suitable for breeding, that the puppies were raised well, or that the breeder is making good decisions about genetic diversity.

Research examining breeding policies across 15 national kennel clubs found considerable variation in how organizations address inherited disease, exaggerated physical characteristics, genetic evaluation, and breeding management. Kennel clubs themselves identified inherited disorders and exaggerated morphology as major welfare concerns.

Registration can provide useful pedigree information.

It should not be confused with a certificate of ethical breeding.

Health Testing Should Be Specific to the Breed

One of the clearest signs of responsible breeding is appropriate health screening of breeding dogs before mating.

But “DNA tested” is not enough.

Different breeds have different inherited disease risks, and appropriate screening may include DNA tests, orthopedic evaluations, cardiac examinations, eye examinations, hearing tests, or other assessments depending on the breed.

An ethical breeder should be able to explain:

• which disorders are important within their breed;

• which tests are recommended for breeding dogs;

• which tests have been performed on each parent;

• what the results mean; and

• how those results influenced the mating decision.

Research in canine genetics has repeatedly emphasized the ethical responsibility breeders have to appropriately test and manage inherited disease. Genetic-test results also become more useful when they are verifiable through accessible health registries rather than existing only as screenshots or verbal assurances from the breeder.

The important word, however, is manage.

Responsible genetic management is more sophisticated than eliminating every dog who carries a disease-associated variant.

A Genetic Carrier Is Not Automatically an Unethical Breeding Dog

This surprises many prospective puppy buyers.

If a dog carries a recessive disease variant, automatically removing that dog and every other carrier from breeding may sound responsible. But if too many dogs are removed from a breeding population, genetic diversity can shrink.

That can create different health problems.

Research in Border Collies illustrates this tension. Investigators evaluating genetic diversity and inherited disorders found that removing carriers of particular diseases could alter genetic diversity within the surrounding regions of the genome. The study highlights why breed management needs to consider disease prevention and preservation of genetic diversity together.

Earlier genetic-counseling research similarly recommended that, for appropriate recessive conditions, high-quality carriers can sometimes be bred to dogs that test clear, producing offspring that are not affected while maintaining valuable genetic diversity.

So a breeder telling you:

isn't necessarily demonstrating greater scientific knowledge.

A better question is:

“How do you use genetic testing to reduce disease risk while protecting genetic diversity within your breeding program?”

A breeder who can answer that thoughtfully is telling you considerably more about their breeding philosophy.

Inbreeding and Genetic Diversity Matter

Purebred dogs exist because populations have been selectively bred for particular characteristics. Some degree of shared ancestry is therefore unavoidable within breeds.

But excessive inbreeding can have biological consequences.

Research examining seven dog breeds found that increasing inbreeding was associated with reductions in litter size and survival, with the authors concluding that mating close relatives can reduce biological fitness.

Ethical breeders should therefore understand pedigrees, coefficients of inbreeding when applicable, popular-sire effects, and the genetic diversity of their breed.

That doesn't mean every puppy buyer needs to become a population geneticist.

It does mean you should be cautious of breeders whose primary goal is repeatedly reproducing a fashionable champion, a particular color, or a popular bloodline without considering the genetic consequences.

Health Has to Matter More Than Appearance

Some of the most difficult ethical questions in dog breeding involve physical characteristics that humans find desirable but that compromise normal function.

Dogs should be able to breathe, walk, run, sleep, eat, reproduce, regulate body temperature, see, and communicate comfortably.

Those abilities should never be treated as optional.

Research has documented significant welfare concerns associated with exaggerated conformation, particularly extreme brachycephaly, the very short skull and muzzle seen in breeds such as Pugs, French Bulldogs, and English Bulldogs.

A 2025 study involving 4,899 participants found that people actually preferred less-extreme versions of brachycephalic breeds when given alternatives, rating the less-extreme dogs more highly for perceived health, attractiveness, ethics of breeding, and desirability as pets.

More strikingly, research published in 2026 compared Pugs with less-extreme Pug crosses. The purebred Pugs had significantly higher rates of respiratory, eye, skin, and musculoskeletal disorders, while the crosses retained similar behavioral profiles and human-dog relationship quality. The researchers concluded that moving away from extreme conformation offers meaningful welfare benefits.

For prospective puppy buyers, the practical lesson is simple:

A breeder should never prioritize appearance over the dog's ability to function comfortably.

Winning in a show ring does not override biology.

Temperament Belongs in the Breeding Decision Too

Ethical breeding isn't only about physical health.

Behavior has a genetic component as well.

A 2024 genomic study of breeding dogs found measurable heritability for behavioral traits, reinforcing the importance of considering behavior as part of breeding selection. The authors specifically noted that behavior influences both canine welfare and the success of human-dog relationships. For more information on the genetics of fear in dogs click here.

That doesn't mean breeders can guarantee puppy temperament.

Behavior results from complicated interactions among genetics, prenatal influences, early development, environment, learning, health, and individual experience.

But breeders can make responsible choices.

Ask how the breeder evaluates the temperament of potential breeding dogs.

A breeder should be able to talk honestly about characteristics such as confidence, sociability, resilience, arousal, trainability, environmental sensitivity, fearfulness, working drive, or aggression where relevant to the breed.

Be cautious when every breeding dog is simply described as having a “perfect temperament.”

How Puppies Are Raised Matters

Once puppies are born, genetics are no longer the only influence shaping their future.

Their environment begins contributing immediately.

A systematic review of canine socialization research concluded that inadequate puppy socialization is associated with increased risks of problematic adult behavior. The research emphasizes that breeders and new owners both have important roles in providing appropriate early experiences.

A separate study examining eight-week-old puppies found that rearing conditions influenced aspects of puppies' social behavior toward humans.

More recent research involving 200 Australian breeders found substantial variation in the amount and types of socialization experiences breeders provided. Most recognized that they played an important role in shaping future puppy behavior, but practices varied considerably among breeding programs.

This means asking whether puppies are “raised in the home” isn't enough.

Ask:

What actually happens during those eight or more weeks?

Puppies should experience developmentally appropriate and positive exposure to people, handling, surfaces, household activities, sounds, objects, movement, play, and other experiences they are likely to encounter later.

Socialization does not mean overwhelming puppies with as many stimuli as possible.

Good socialization is controlled, positive, gradual, and appropriate for the individual puppy.

The Breeder Has the Puppy During a Critical Part of Development

This is one reason breeder selection matters so much.

By the time many people bring their puppy home, some of the most developmentally important weeks of the puppy's life have already happened.

The breeder controls much of that early environment.

Recent research is beginning to explore even very specific aspects of breeder management. A 2026 study of 293 breeders in Canada and the United States examined how breeders managed puppies' access to milk, food, toys, and other resources. The study found considerable variation in practices and associations between some management approaches and reported competitive behavior among puppies, although the researchers emphasized that longitudinal research is still needed before causal conclusions can be drawn.

The larger message is important:

Breeding isn't finished when puppies are born.

How puppies are raised is part of breeding responsibly.

You Should Be Able to Meet the Mother

One of the strongest newer pieces of research involves something prospective puppy buyers can actually observe themselves.

A 2026 longitudinal study followed 985 puppies acquired in the UK and assessed their health when they reached approximately 21 months of age.

Puppies purchased before six weeks of age and puppies whose buyers had not seen the puppy's mother before purchase were more likely to have a greater number of reported health disorders later. Puppies sold without a microchip were also associated with owners being more likely to spend more than expected on veterinary care.

The study cannot prove that merely seeing the mother causes better health.

Rather, seeing the mother may serve as an indicator of how and where the puppy was bred and whether the seller is transparent about the puppy's origins.

That's exactly why this is a useful screening question.

You should expect to see puppies with their mother in the environment where they are being raised, barring an unusual and legitimately explainable circumstance.

If a seller offers to meet you in a parking lot, deliver the puppy without allowing you to see where it was raised, or provides excuses for why the mother is unavailable, consider that a significant warning sign.

Ethical Breeders Don't Need You to Buy a Puppy Today

A responsible breeder is trying to find an appropriate home.

That objective is fundamentally different from trying to close a sale.

You should therefore expect questions.

A thoughtful breeder may ask about your household, previous dog experience, work schedule, children, other animals, fencing, activity level, training plans, and what you hope to do with your dog.

They may even tell you that their breed, or a particular puppy, isn't appropriate for you.

That isn't poor customer service.

It may be evidence that the breeder is prioritizing the dog's future over making a sale.

Conversely, pressure to send an immediate deposit because “someone else is interested” should make you cautious.

Good Breeders Know Their Puppies

Ethical breeders generally don't treat puppies as interchangeable products.

Because they have observed the litter developing for weeks, they should have information about individual puppies' behavior and personality.

A highly confident, intensely driven puppy might thrive in one household and overwhelm another.

A quieter, more environmentally sensitive puppy might require a different type of home.

That is why “pick order” based solely on deposit date or color preference isn't necessarily the best placement strategy.

Ask the breeder:

How do you decide which puppy goes to which home?

Their answer tells you a lot.

Look for Transparency, Not Perfection

No bloodline is free of health problems.

No breeding program has never produced a dog with a medical or behavioral issue.

And no ethical breeder can guarantee that your puppy will remain healthy for life.

In fact, someone promising a “completely healthy bloodline” should make you more skeptical, not less.

Ethical breeders know the weaknesses as well as the strengths of their dogs.

They should be able to discuss health problems that have occurred in their lines, longevity, temperament concerns, and what they're doing to reduce future risk.

Transparency is more meaningful than perfection.

A Responsible Breeder's Obligation Shouldn't End at Eight Weeks

The strongest ethical breeding philosophy recognizes that producing a dog creates a long-term responsibility.

Ask what happens if, years later, you can no longer keep the dog.

A responsible breeder should want to know.

Many require owners to return the dog to them or involve them in finding another appropriate home rather than allowing a dog they produced to enter an unknown situation.

That kind of responsibility tells you something important:

The breeder isn't merely producing puppies.

They remain invested in the dogs after the purchase is complete.

Questions to Ask a Dog Breeder

Rather than asking only, “Are the parents health tested?”, dig deeper.

Ask which health tests are recommended for the breed and request verifiable results. Ask about genetic diversity and how mating decisions are made. Ask about health and longevity in close relatives.

Ask about temperament, both the strengths and weaknesses of the parents.

Ask where the puppies are born and raised, what they experience during their first weeks of life, and how the breeder approaches socialization.

Ask to meet the mother.

Ask why the breeder chose this particular mating.

That question is especially revealing.

A thoughtful breeder should have an answer that goes beyond:

“They'll make beautiful puppies.”

Red Flags When Looking for a Breeder

Be cautious when a breeder:

• will not provide verifiable health-testing results;

• doesn't know which inherited conditions occur within the breed;

• advertises generic “DNA tested” dogs without explaining specific results;

• consistently has numerous litters or many different breeds available;

• won't let you see where puppies are raised;

• won't let you meet the mother without a credible explanation;

• sends puppies home unusually young;

• breeds primarily for extreme physical features, rare colors, or novelty;

• cannot explain the temperament of their breeding dogs;

• shows little interest in your lifestyle or suitability;

• allows buyers to select puppies based almost entirely on appearance;

• pressures you to send money quickly;

• promises that their puppies will never develop genetic disease;

• has no plan for dogs whose owners can no longer keep them.

One red flag doesn't necessarily tell you the entire story.

Patterns matter.

What About Doodles, Designer Dogs, and Mixed-Breed Breeders?

Ethical breeding isn't determined by whether a dog is purebred or intentionally crossbred.

The same welfare principles should apply.

Parents should receive health testing relevant to both sides of their ancestry. Temperament should matter. Genetic diversity should be considered. Dogs should be physically functional. Puppies should receive appropriate early care and socialization, and breeders should take responsibility for the dogs they produce.

Crossbreeding also isn't automatically healthier.

Health depends on what genes, anatomy, and disease risks the parents bring into the mating.

However, recent research demonstrates that carefully moving away from extreme physical traits through crossbreeding can sometimes produce meaningful welfare improvements. The 2026 research comparing Pugs with less-extreme Pug crosses is one example.

The appropriate question isn't:

“Purebred or mixed?”

It is:

“What evidence shows that this breeding decision was made with the health and welfare of the resulting dogs as the priority?”

People who want a crossbreed Poodle need to understand that even purebred Poodles shed alittle, and that, the higher the percent of Poodle genes the less likely that the individual will shed a lot. The breeder should be able to tell you want percentage of Poodle is in the breeding of there puppies.

The Human Dog Harmony Takeaway

Finding an ethical breeder takes more work than finding an available puppy.

That's a good thing.

When you purchase a puppy, you aren't just choosing a dog.

You are financially supporting a breeding philosophy.

Ethical breeders make decisions that may not always produce the most puppies, the most fashionable puppies, or the puppies that command the highest prices.

They health test.

They study pedigrees.

They think about genetic diversity.

They consider temperament.

They avoid breeding dogs whose physical characteristics compromise normal function.

They invest in the mother's welfare.

They carefully raise and socialize puppies.

They learn who their puppies are.

They ask buyers difficult questions.

They tell the truth about problems in their lines.

And they remain responsible for the dogs they bring into the world.

The science of dog breeding continues to evolve, and there is no breeding program capable of eliminating every possible health or behavioral problem.

But ethical breeding isn't about guaranteeing perfection.

It is about making evidence-informed decisions that give dogs the best reasonable chance to live healthy, functional, behaviorally sound lives.

Before you fall in love with a photograph of a puppy, investigate the person making the decisions behind that puppy.

Because the breeder's choices started shaping your future dog's life long before you ever met.

Creating harmony through science-based training and care.

Frequently Asked Questions About Finding an Ethical Dog Breeder

What is an ethical dog breeder?

An ethical dog breeder prioritizes the health, welfare, temperament, and functional ability of the dogs they breed rather than simply producing puppies for sale. Ethical breeders use appropriate health testing, consider genetic diversity, evaluate temperament, provide high-quality care and early socialization, carefully match puppies with homes, and remain responsible for the dogs they produce throughout their lives.

Ethical breeding isn't about producing “perfect” dogs. It is about making thoughtful, evidence-informed breeding decisions that give puppies the best reasonable chance of living healthy, functional, behaviorally sound lives.

How can I tell if a dog breeder is reputable?

Look beyond a professional website, registration papers, testimonials, or attractive puppies. Ask the breeder to provide verifiable health-testing results for both parents and explain which conditions are important in the breed.

A responsible breeder should also be willing to discuss temperament, genetic diversity, health and longevity within their lines, why they selected a particular mating, how puppies are raised and socialized, and how they decide which puppy is appropriate for each home.

Just as importantly, expect the breeder to ask questions about you. A breeder who cares about where their puppies go should want to understand your household, lifestyle, experience, expectations, and plans for the dog.

Does AKC registration mean a breeder is ethical?

No. Registration documents ancestry and eligibility within a registry; it does not independently demonstrate responsible breeding.

A registered dog can still be bred without all recommended health testing, without adequate consideration of temperament or genetic diversity, or under poor welfare conditions. Registration and pedigree information can be useful tools, but they should be considered alongside health testing, breeding practices, puppy-rearing practices, transparency, and long-term responsibility.

What health tests should an ethical breeder perform?

There isn't one health-testing checklist that applies to every dog. Appropriate testing depends on the breed and the inherited conditions known to occur within that population.

Testing may include DNA tests as well as orthopedic evaluations, cardiac examinations, eye examinations, hearing tests, or other breed-specific assessments.

Ask the breeder which tests are recommended for their breed, whether both parents have completed them, what the results were, and where you can independently verify those results.

A generic statement such as “parents are DNA tested” isn't enough.

Is Embark or another DNA test enough health testing for a breeding dog?

Usually not by itself.

DNA testing can identify certain genetic variants, but many important canine health conditions cannot be evaluated with a simple DNA panel. Depending on the breed, responsible screening may require examinations or evaluations of hips, elbows, eyes, heart, hearing, or other body systems.

The relevant question isn't simply, “Was this dog DNA tested?”

Ask, “Has this dog completed all of the health screening appropriate for this breed?”

Is it bad for a breeder to breed a dog that is a genetic carrier?

Not necessarily.

For some recessively inherited conditions, a healthy carrier may be responsibly bred to a genetically clear dog without producing affected puppies. Automatically eliminating every carrier from a breeding population can also reduce genetic diversity, particularly in breeds with relatively small gene pools.

Ethical genetic management therefore, requires more than labeling dogs “clear” or “carrier.” Breeders should understand inheritance, disease risk, pedigrees, and genetic diversity and use that information when planning matings.

Why does genetic diversity matter in dog breeding?

Maintaining genetic diversity helps preserve the health and biological fitness of a population. Excessive inbreeding can increase the likelihood that harmful recessive variants will pair together and has been associated with effects such as reduced litter size and survival in some dog populations.

Responsible breeders therefore consider more than whether two individual dogs appear healthy. They also consider pedigrees, relatedness, inherited disease, and the potential genetic consequences of repeatedly using particular dogs or bloodlines.

Should I be able to meet the mother of a puppy?

Generally, yes. Prospective buyers should expect to see puppies with their mother in the environment where they are being raised unless there is a legitimate and clearly explained unusual circumstance.

Seeing the mother also gives you an opportunity to observe her physical condition, temperament, relationship with the puppies, and the environment in which the litter is developing.

Be cautious if a seller refuses to let you see where puppies are raised, repeatedly makes excuses for why the mother isn't available, or wants to complete the transaction in a parking lot or other location away from the breeding environment.

At what age should a puppy leave its breeder?

Puppies should not be separated from their mother and littermates unusually early. Laws and breed-specific developmental considerations vary, but eight weeks is a common minimum placement age, with some breeders keeping puppies longer depending on the breed and individual puppy.

Research also supports taking early-life experiences seriously. A 2026 longitudinal study of 985 puppies found that puppies acquired before six weeks of age were associated with a greater number of reported health disorders later.

The appropriate question for a breeder is not simply when puppies can legally leave. Ask why the breeder has chosen their particular placement age and how puppy development factors into that decision.

What should an ethical breeder do to socialize puppies?

Good puppy socialization is more than allowing puppies to play with each other or live inside a house.

Puppies should receive developmentally appropriate, positive exposure to people, handling, household activities, sounds, surfaces, objects, movement, play, and other experiences that help prepare them for life outside the breeder's home.

Socialization should not mean overwhelming puppies with constant stimulation. Experiences should be positive, gradual, controlled, and appropriate for each puppy.

Ask breeders to describe what they actually do with their puppies each week rather than simply asking whether the puppies are “socialized.”

Should breeders temperament-test their puppies?

Temperament should be an important consideration in responsible breeding and puppy placement, but no single puppy temperament test can perfectly predict adult behavior.

A breeder's observations over several weeks can also provide valuable information about individual puppies. Breeders may notice differences in confidence, sociability, environmental sensitivity, persistence, arousal, recovery from novel experiences, and other behavioral characteristics.

Ask how the breeder evaluates puppies and uses those observations when matching puppies with homes.

Should I be allowed to choose my own puppy?

Not necessarily.

Allowing buyers to select puppies solely according to deposit order, color, markings, or which puppy runs up to them first may not produce the best matches.

A breeder who has spent weeks observing the puppies may have considerably more information about their individual characteristics. Some responsible breeders therefore match or help match puppies with families according to temperament, lifestyle, experience, and the buyer's goals.

Ask the breeder to explain their placement process and why they use it.

What are the biggest red flags when choosing a breeder?

Warning signs include refusing to provide verifiable health-testing results, not knowing which inherited diseases affect the breed, emphasizing “rare” colors or extreme physical characteristics, refusing to show you where puppies are raised, not allowing you to see the mother without a credible explanation, sending puppies home unusually young, and pressuring you to pay immediately.

Also be cautious of breeders who ask almost nothing about you, cannot discuss the strengths and weaknesses of their dogs, guarantee that their puppies will never develop genetic disease, or have no plan for dogs whose owners can no longer keep them.

Is a breeder ethical if they breed many different breeds?

The number of breeds or litters alone cannot establish whether a breeder is ethical. However, responsible breeding requires considerable knowledge about breed-specific health conditions, genetics, temperament, pedigrees, reproduction, puppy development, and appropriate placement.

A breeder consistently producing numerous litters across many breeds deserves additional scrutiny. Ask how they maintain appropriate expertise, health testing, individual care, socialization, record keeping, and lifetime responsibility for every dog they produce.

Are doodle or designer-dog breeders automatically unethical?

No. Ethical breeding should be evaluated according to welfare and breeding practices rather than simply whether puppies are purebred or intentionally crossbred.

A breeder producing an intentional cross should health-test the parents for relevant conditions associated with both sides of the puppies' ancestry, consider temperament and physical function, understand genetics and diversity, appropriately raise and socialize puppies, carefully select homes, and remain responsible for the dogs they produce.

Likewise, being a purebred breeder does not automatically make someone ethical.

Are mixed-breed dogs automatically healthier than purebred dogs?

No. Crossbreeding can increase genetic diversity in some circumstances and may reduce certain risks, but simply crossing two breeds does not guarantee healthier puppies.

A puppy can inherit disease-associated variants and problematic physical characteristics from either parent. The health implications depend on the genetics, anatomy, health, and breeding decisions involving the actual dogs being bred.

The better question is whether the breeder understands the health risks present in both parental populations and has made an evidence-informed mating decision.

Does an ethical breeder need to show dogs or earn titles?

Not necessarily.

Titles can provide useful information. Conformation evaluation may provide information about adherence to a breed standard, while working, performance, sport, or temperament achievements can demonstrate aspects of a dog's functional abilities and behavior.

But titles are not substitutes for health testing, sound temperament, functional anatomy, appropriate genetic management, or responsible puppy raising.

Ask what qualities the breeder is trying to preserve or improve and how they evaluate those qualities in their breeding dogs.

What should an ethical breeder's contract include?

Contracts vary, but a responsible breeder's agreement should clearly explain the responsibilities of both breeder and buyer. It may address health information, registration, breeding rights or restrictions, veterinary requirements, and what should happen if the owner can no longer keep the dog.

Pay particular attention to the breeder's return policy.

A breeder willing, or requiring, to take back a dog they produced if its owner can no longer care for it demonstrates an important principle of responsible breeding: their responsibility to the dog doesn't end when the puppy leaves.

What is the single best question to ask a dog breeder?

Ask:

“Why did you choose to breed these two particular dogs?”

A thoughtful answer can reveal an extraordinary amount about a breeding program.

Listen for discussion of health, temperament, pedigree, genetic diversity, functional ability, strengths and weaknesses, and the breeder's goals for the resulting puppies.

If the answer focuses primarily on producing a certain color, creating beautiful puppies, meeting demand, or simply because both dogs are registered, keep asking questions.

An ethical breeder should have a thoughtful reason for bringing every litter into the world.

References

Bell, J. S. (2011). Researcher responsibilities and genetic counseling for pure-bred dog populations. The Veterinary Journal, 189(2), 234–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.06.025

Dale, F. C., O'Neill, D. G., Brand, C. L., Belshaw, Z., Merritt, B. L., Pegram, C. L., & Packer, R. M. A. (2026). Sold a pup? Impact of purchasing practices, owner and dog demographics, and puppy early-life experiences on later canine health outcomes in the UK. Animal Welfare, 35, e18. https://doi.org/10.1017/awf.2026.10077

Farrell, L. L., et al. (2018). Breeding policies and management of pedigree dogs in 15 national kennel clubs. Veterinary Journal.

Leroy, G., Phocas, F., Hedan, B., Verrier, E., & Rognon, X. (2015). Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds. The Veterinary Journal, 203(1), 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008

McEvoy, V., Baqueiro Espinosa, U., Crump, A., & Arnott, G. (2022). Canine socialisation: A narrative systematic review. Animals, 12(21), 2895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12212895

Rausch, Q., White, S., Widowski, T. M., Coe, J., Jacobs, J., & Niel, L. (2026). Resource management practices of Canadian and American domestic dog breeders and associations with puppy competitive behaviour: A cross-sectional study. Animal Welfare, 35, e42. https://doi.org/10.1017/awf.2026.10098

Soh, P. X. Y., Hsu, W. T., Khatkar, M. S., & Williamson, P. (2021). Evaluation of genetic diversity and management of disease in Border Collie dogs. Scientific Reports, 11, 6243. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85262-x

Youens, E., O'Neill, D. G., Tivers, M., Belshaw, Z., Neufuss, J., & Packer, R. M. A. (2026). A solution right under our nose? Crossbreeding extreme brachycephalic dogs results in better health outcomes while preserving behavioural profiles and dog-owner relationship quality. Animal Welfare, 35, e41. https://doi.org/10.1017/awf.2026.10095